RELIGION AND GENDER ON THE AFRICAN CONTINENT

TENDAYI ISAAC MAWANGO 2009

RELIGION AND GENDER ON THE AFRICAN CONTINENT

And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle , and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them. [Genesis 1: 26-27]

There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus. [Galatians 3: 28]

Whosoever performs good deeds , whether male or female, and is a believer, we shall surely make him live a good life, and we will certainly reward them for the best of what they did. [Qur’an 16: 97]

A woman is a flower in a garden; and her husband is the fence around it. [ Ghananian proverb]

Let your women keep silence in the churches: for it is not permitted unto them to speak; but they are commanded to be under obedience, as also saith the law. And if they will learn anything, let them ask their husbands at home: for it is a shame for women to speak in the church. [I Corinthians 14: 34-35]

Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because God has given the one more [strength] than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in [ the husband’s] absence what God would have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them [ first], [next] refuse to share their beds, [ and last] beat them [lightly]; but if they return to obedience, seek not against them means [ of annoyance]: for God is Most High, Great [above you all]. [Qura’n 4: ]

The above quotations provide a window to appreciate gender relations as constructed in religion on the African continent. They capture, on the one hand, the ideal of equality, partnership and complementarity between the sexes; and on the other hand the reality of inequalities, oppression, suppression, exclusion and deprivation in Africa’s triple heritage of traditionalism, Islam and Christianity. The ideal picture of a religious arena which provides for equality among the sexes is however locked up somewhere in mythology, antiquity, or some other historical past where it is generally inaccessible. For the African traditionalist, a combination of colonialism, modernity and Christianity has made this ideal religious arena inaccessible. Christian and Muslim activists have thrown up arguments against a mis-constructed theology and an inflexible interpretation of the holy writings as being responsible for the marginalisation of the ‘weaker and fairer’ sex.[1] These excuses and arguments whether valid or otherwise bring us face to face with the reality that religion [in its multiple forms] in Africa has by and large led to greater inequalities between the sexes. By its very nature, religion, “as a set of common beliefs and practices held by a group of people, often codified as prayer, ritual and religious law”[2], affect almost every area of human existence and endeavour and as such the inequalities arising as a result of religion are not restricted to the religious sphere but rather pervade all areas of human life. The Muslim religion clearly exemplifies this by denoting Islam: “a way of life”.

Most religions have at their core “man expressing his acknowledgement of a god”.[3] This acknowledgement involves assigning an identity and personality to the god. The construction of the identity of God in the different religions on the African continent has by and large been responsible for gender inequalities. Christianity and Islam construct the identity of God in masculine terms. In the Old Testament God is described as a “man of war.” [4] Throughout the Qur’an and the Bible God is: “the Father”; “the King”; “the Lord” and all His acts and promises are expressed in masculine terms. This is further compounded by the fact that His injunctions are either directed to the Prophet or men and emphasis is given to the “overlordship of the patriarch.”[5] Though both the Qur’an and the Bible are explicit in their distinction between God and man the identification of God in masculine terms has resulted in theologies which regard men as gods and in turn the subordination of women.[6] Traditional African religion presents a variegated picture in its construction of the identity of the divine. This, in part, is because of the polytheistic character of some of the African religions and the diverse forms of traditional religion on the continent. Among the Yoruba of Nigeria, the Bemba, the Ganda of Uganda, the Mende of Mali, and the San in South Africa, Botswana and Namibia both male and female deities are acknowledged. Among the Shona and the Ndebele of Zimbabwe, the Zulu and Xhosa in South Africa the identity of God is masculine [the terms Mwari, Umnkulunkulu are neutral but are generally perceived in a masculine sense]. An interesting point to note is that the female deities of the African continent are in most cases the wives and mothers of the male deities or the supreme-being. In addition they are only revered in the domestic settings with the male deities assuming a communal orientation.[7] This translates into the domestication of both the female deities and their human female counterparts hence religion is a carrier of gender inequalities.


Religion across Africa, be it in its traditional or Abrahamic character,[8] is interested in trying to explain the origins of human and other forms of life. Various myths have been generated as religion tried to grapple with this subject and this has had unfavourable effects on the status of women. This, is especially so in both Christianity and Islam. Biblical stories on the creation in the first three chapters of Genesis present a woman as one who was created out of a man’s rib. Contrary to God’s intention to provide “a helper meet” for man[9] woman has now been turned into s lesser being in current African theologies. The concept of a helper who is an equal is discarded in favour of one who occupies a servile position. African men therefore derive authority from being the first of God’s creation. Though the Qur’an does not carry a full account of the story of the creation it echoes the traditions of the Bible and many a muslim scholar uses the Judeo-Christian position.[10] In the Egyptian context the stories of the creation have generated the belief that a man is worth two women.[11] Traditional African religion, characterized by its diversity and complexity,[12] does not present a single front on the origins of human life. In East Africa, as observed by John Mbiti, human life is linked with God sharing the secrets and mysteries of birth and life with a woman.[13] Such myths empower women. In West Africa the biblical account is re-echoed in some myths. Among the Kwotto of Nigeria, for example, man was created first and woman was created last and when God was tired thus she turned to be a weaker being.[14] The overall picture which emerges from the myths and accounts of the origins of human life is one which impacts negatively on the status of women resulting in the perpetuation of gender inequalities.

The beginnings of human in the various myths is situated in glorious settings reminiscent of paradise and perfection succeeded by a process of decay and the banishment of man and woman from the perfect world of the creation. The construction of the process decay has been done at the expense of the women. Women are presented as the authors and mothers of sin. The account in Genesis 3 on the separation of man from God places the blame on the woman. The woman was the one who was beguiled by the snake resulting in both man and woman eating the forbidden fruit. Various theologies have developed around this story and these are reinforced by Pauline teachings which attribute sin to women.[15] In the Qur’anic tradition the responsibility for sin is carried by both man and woman.[16] Eve is not the temptress, but just as disobedient as Adam. Traditional African religions like Christianity have also apportioned the blame for separation from God to women. The Ashanti in Ghana allege that it was woman’s noise, generated from pounding fufu, which drove God higher into the sky and away from man.[17] The Bambuti also allege that it was a pregnant woman who ate the forbidden fruit resulting in God punishing the people with death. The apportionment of the blame for the explusion from paradise to women creates inequalities between the sexes in the religious arena. In fact women assume the character of evil which has to be resisted.

The definition of the relationship between spouses in marriage by the various religions on the African continent is detrimental to the status of women. The prescription by both Christianity and Islam carries a lot of contradictions which in the main has resulted in the subordination of women. The two religions urge husbands to be considerate in their dealings with their wives.[18] This presents the picture of a marriage premised on compassion and love and equality. In practice, however women are made subordinate to the husbands by theologies which emphasize those scriptures which call on women to submit to their husbands. An overemphasis on the requirement that a wife should honour and submit to her husband which, as captured in Pauline doctrine by drawing on the case of Sarah who called Abraham “my Lord” is severely inimical to the equality between the sexes in Christianity.[19] This is further compounded by the doctrine that man is the head of the household which, impacts negatively on women’s opportunities to influence decision making in the home. Though the subject of submission between spouses in a requirement for both men and women conventional teachings in the African Church and Mosque trivializes woman who is described as a weaker vessel. In Islam the gender imbalances are further worsened by the permissibility of polygamy and the authorization of physical punishment against the wife.[20] Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a naturalized Somali-Dutch parliamentarian, articulates the violence common in Islamic marriages as a direct result of the inflexible interpretation of the scriptures which is part of the Islamic idea of preserving the teachings of Mohammed in their original state.[21] In her opinion muslim women are trapped in a cycle of hopeless tyranny.[22] Traditional African practice generally re-echoes and reinforces the position captured in the case of Islam and Christianity. In the case of the Shona of Zimbabwe, there is this generally held view that in the first few days of marriage a man must assert his authority in the house by assaulting the wife. In addition the man is for all purposes the head of the family and the wife is no less than a child.

The construction of marriage and divorce in Africa’s three religions is also inimical to gender equality. Christianity emphasizes a monogamy which reduces women to the status of sheep which, have to be organized by men.[23] In addition the church rules out divorce and as such unwittingly condones the abuse and exploitation of women and promotes male domination.[24] In Islam and traditional African religion there is a tendency towards polygamous marriages. Though there are explicit calls in both religions that men should treat their wives fairly the situation on the ground is far cry from that ideal. Marriage is by and large an unhappy affair of neglect and abuse. Islam makes an effort at being sensitive to women in cases of divorce whether the woman or the man is the one suing for divorce by guaranteeing the upkeep of the woman for the three months immediately succeeding divorce. The man also has an obligation to look after the offspring after the divorce. In traditional Shona culture for example, divorce is a sad affair for the woman who literary loses the husband’s support and custody of the children. In the event of a divorce a suckling infant continues to stay with the mother until it is weaned. The parting gift (gupuro) is more an expression contempt than anything else because the amounts involved are ridiculously low to the extent that it can not give the woman meaningful sustenance. In some instances the parting token is the woman’s family.

The articulation of sexuality in Africa’s religious landscape is for all purposes and intents disempowering to the women. The three major religions recognize the importance of women in reproduction and hence the perpetuation of the family and the nation. An African proverb succinctly captures this in the following manner: “To beget a woman is to beget a man.”[25] This proverb recognizes and carries the hope that the wife will bear both girls and boys after marriage. The Shona equate the woman/wife with the perpetuation of the household. In Ghana the belief is that a serviceable wife will be blessed with the birth of the tenth child. [26]This recognition of a woman’s importance in perpetuation of life can degenerate into a situation where women become child-bearing machines and nothing else. Though important in guaranteeing the perpetuation of the society, a woman’s sexuality is also looked at in negative terms. The three religions on consider women as unclean and unsafe during their menstrual cycles. A woman’s beauty is also derided and is reduced to something that a woman should be ashamed of. Among the Tsonga and Shangana it is generally held that one should not desire a woman with beautiful breasts if one has no money.[27] The situation is even worse in Islam where a woman’s beauty should be hidden behind the veil and virginity is guarded jealously to the extent that women are generally secluded hence Ali’s characterisation of women in Islam as being in a cage.[28] Christianity also carries the same message as Islam but in a rather diluted form. It should be noted the Bible carries a whole book, Songs of Songs which, celebrates the beauty of a woman.

The economic positions articulated by religion for both men and women are also responsible for gender imbalances and inequalities. In traditional African practice economic goods are constructed and understood in a gendered manner which disadvantages the woman. In Shona society, for example, the man controls the family granary and the staple food, maize, is a male crop. This scenario also extends to livestock where women generally own small stock and chickens. In Islam the man has a mandate to look after the family and as such there is an injunction on man to actively pursue economic prosperity whereas the wife should be looked after and as such she is schooled into ignorance and laziness.[29] Women in Islam can own and control property and are under no obligation to contribute to the family’s upkeep, whatever income they have they can dispose of it as they please.[30] The situation in Islam is premised on the theology that women should be spared from the struggles and worries for livelihood and give attention to home making.[31] This translates to the neglect of the development of women hence the earlier comment that women are schooled into ignorance and laziness. In Judeo-Christian heritage, as understood and practiced on the African continent, the man should work for the upkeep of the family. The link between Christianity and the liberal west dilute the extent to which women are excluded in the economic arena in Christianity. The Pentecostal Church in Zimbabwe has of late been striving towards the economic empowerment of women through taking up the challenge of the virtuous woman of the Proverbs who is actively involved in income generating activities and managing the estate.[32]

The extent to which the sexes access education and opportunities to develop their intellect in Africa has also been influenced by religion. Historically and theoretically Islam was pro the education and intellectual development of both man and women. During the Sokoto Jihad led by Usman dan Fordio women were encouraged to read and be enlightened. In fact the Jihadists actually condemned men for denying their wives a chance to study.[33] In the Koranic verses all believers irrespective of sex are encouraged to read and study. The quest for knowledge is an important part of the Islamic faith hence “only those of his servants who are learned truly fear God”.[34] These ideals were responsible for the active scholarship which transcended the sexual divide in 19th century West Africa. In present day Africa muslim women are by and large secluded and excluded from the intellectual arena as result of ‘religious decay’.[35] Traditional African practice expects the man to go out and hunt and feed the family thus education as a modern form of hunting which equips the man to feed the family is considered the domain of man. This is especially the case where resources are limited and the man child is given priority over the girl child. A Shona construction views the girl-child as one who enriches another family [this is based on the premise that upon marriage the girl-child joins the husband’s family] and as such should not be given priority when it comes to sharing resources for financing education. The advent of Christianity on the African continent in the nineteenth century was accompanied by the transfer of Western cultures and their biases hence in the case of former British colonies the heritage of Victorian male chauvinism found it’s way into the colonies. This means that though women had and have access to education, missionary education was primarily concerned with producing good wives and thus it reinforced the biases carried in traditional African practice.

Religion’s definition of the utilization of space by sexes also exacerbates gender inequalities. A woman’s participation is restricted to the household whereas the man has the whole of God’s world to explore and milk for his benefit. In Islam the domain of the woman is to a greater extent restricted to the household. When a woman goes into the streets or some public space [occassionally] she has to be veiled. The veil is synonymous with seclusion and the definition of social space into male and female space.[36]The woman’s space being private and the man’s public. The veil becomes an expression of the invisibility of the woman in the public arena and in turn strips her of the chance to participate in it.[37] Though the veil is physically absent in both Christianity and traditional religion the woman’s participation in the public arena is severely handicapped by the emphasis on “decent” and “modest” conduct.

The extent of participation and the roles taken by the different sexes within the religious establishment also demonstrates the extent to religion also militates against gender equality in Africa. In all the three religions the spiritual equality of the sexes is recognized.[38] This equality, however, is restricted to membership as leadership positions are to a larger extent monopolized by man. Mercy Oduyoye laments the situation in the Church where the ecclesia remains male in outlook.[39] Musa Wenkosi Dube reiterates the point by presenting women in a vicious circle in which they are “the daughters of their fathers, the mothers of their children and are led by males in the Church”. [40] In Islam leadership is also monopolized by the men. In African religion a complex power sharing relationship exists. The situation echoes Winnie Wanzala’s view that power relations are not always uni-dimensional, that is the existence of an all powerful male group which dominates women.[41] Power becomes situational and decentralized. Women derive authority by presiding over certain rituals which man can not perform for example the initiation of girls into womanhood.[42] Thanksgiving rituals for the birth of a child and subsequent dedication are performed by the father and the mother. In addition female spirit mediums are common if not dominant. Kilson shoots down female authority derived from spirit possession by pointing out that the respect accorded is only limited to the time when one is actually possessed by the spirit. She extends her argument by pointing out that female mediums are only important in as much as they are given authority and space to participate by the male priests who have overall authority in the cult.[43] Female spiritual healers also pervade the African landscape and essence these are gendered males.[44]

The systems and laws regulating inheritance in religion have the effect of disempowering women culminating in the perpetuation of gender inequalities. In Islam an heiress receives half the portion that an heir receives. This is premised on the position that it is man and not woman who has the responsibility of looking after the family. An important point to concede is that whatever the woman receives she assumes full ownership. The Judeo-Christian heritage defines inheritance from a patriarchal stance hence in the biblical stories the male children enjoy the father’s estate and girls are simply married off.[45] In traditional African religion the practice of giving a smaller share of the parental estate to the female heir is justified on the grounds that she is likely to receive an additional portion from her marriage.[46] In Shona culture married women are viewed as “vatorwa” (outsiders) and hence the chances of inheriting the marriage estate are always in doubt.

The doctrines of both Islam and Christianity are also insensitive to gender. Women are treated as the others. Biblical accounts rarely mention the names of the women irrespective of whether or not there are at the centre of the account. The account of the healing of the woman with the issue of blood and Jairus’s daughter in Mark’s gospel clearly exemplifies this.[47] The stories of the feeding of the 4000 and 5000 deliberately exclude women from the number of those who were fed. This has led to rise of a theology which trivializes women. In Islam women are also treated as the “others” and are by and large faceless and nameless in the accounts of the Qur’an. Mary the mother of Jesus is amongst the few women who receive attention in the Qur’anic verses and still one can argue that she still an insignificant other because she primarily is the mother of a great prophet who at the end of the day assumes centre stage. The household of God in both Islam and Christianity is therefore a theatre of gender inequalities which are enshrined in the doctrines of the faiths.

What becomes apparent from the preceding discussion is that religion affects almost every area of life. Its direct and indirect effects on relations in marriage, within the religious establishments, and society at large negatively impact on the status of women and promote male domination. In this regard therefore religion has to a larger extent worsened gender inequalities by creating its own and reinforcing other social, economic and political inequalities.



REFERENCES

Ayaan Hirsi Ali, The Caged Virgin: A Muslim Woman’s Cry for Reason, London, Simon and Schuster UK Ltd, 2007.

Balghis Badri (Ed), The Gender and Women’s Studies Textbook, Khartoum, Ahfad University, 2001.

Bodman Herbert and Nayereh Tohidi (ed.s), Women in Muslim Societies: Diversity within Unity, London, Lynne Reinne Publishers, 1998.

Dube M.W., ‘Little Girl, Get Up”, in Njoroge N.J. and Dube M.W., Talitha cum!Theologies of African W omen, Pietermaritzburg, Cluster Publications, 2001

Lemu Aisha B. and Heeren, Woman in Islam, Leicester, Cromwell Press ltd, 1976.

Muchiri, N., “Book Review: Women and Land in Africa: Culture, Religion and Realizing Women’s Rights”, Wanyeka Muthoni L. (ed), London, Zed Books, 2003” in JENDA, Vol. 7, 2005.

Mufema E., “Empowerment and Development of Women in Egypt: Salient challenges of the 1990S” in McFadden P(ed), Reflections on Gender Issues in Africa, Harare, Sapes Books, 1999, pp.85-108.

Wanzala Winnie, “Towards an Epistemological and Methodological Frame of Development” in McFadden P. (ed), Southern Africa in Transition: A Gendered Perspective, Harare, Sapes Trust, 1998.

Internet Sources
http:// www.afrikaworld.net/afrel.
http:// www.thecirclecawt.org.
http:// www.webstar.co.uk.
http:// www.en.wikipedia.org.
http:// www.godonthe.net
[1] The reference to woman as the weaker sex is dominant in Islamic and Christian theologies.
[2] http:// www.en.wikipedia.org.
[3] http:// www.godonthe.net. The term man in this case should be understood in its neutral aense.
[4] Genesis 15: 3
[5] Herbert L. Bodman, “Introduction”, in H.L. Bodman and N. Tohidi (ed.s) Women in Muslim Societies: Diversity Within Unity, London, Lynne Reinne Publishers, 1998, p.4.
[6] http:// www.thecirclecawt.org.
[7] Marion Kilson, Women in African Traditional Religions: http:// www..jstor/ Journal of Religion in Africa, Vol.8.2
[8] The term establishes the common roots of both Islam and Judeo-Christian religions.
[9] Genesis 2: 18.
[10] Herbert L. Bodman, “ Introduction”, in Bodman H..L. and Tohidi N. (ed.s), Women in Muslim Societies: Diversity Within Unity, p. 5
[11] Edmore Mufema, “Empowerment and Development of Women in Egypt: Salient challenges of the 1990S” in McFadden P(ed), Reflections on Gender Issues in Africa, Harare, Sapes Books, 1999, p.98.
[12] Marion Kilson, Women in African Traditional Religions.
[13] http:// www.afrikaworld.net/afrel.
[14] Ibid.
[15] I Timothy 2: 15. Elsewhere Paul says sin entered the world through man, but it is the first dimension of his “contradictory” message which has greater sway in the Church in A frica. Maybe the overall domination of the Church hierarchy by man is responsible for this.
[16] Herbert L. Bodman, “Introduction”, p.5.
[17] http:// www.afrikaworld.net/afrel.
[18] Qura’n 30:21 and Ephesians 6.
[19]
[20] Qur’an 4:34.
[21] Ayaan Hirsi Ali, The Caged Virgin: A Muslim Woman’s Cry for Reason, London, Simon and Schuster UK Ltd, 2007, p.3-7.
[22] Ibid, p.7.
[23] Mary Nyambura Muchiri, Book Review: Women and Land in Africa: Culture, Religion and realizing Women’s Rights, in JENDA, No.7, p.1.
[24] Ibid.
[25] http:// www.afikaworld.net/sfrel.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Ibid.
[28] Ayaan Hirsi Ali, The Caged Virgin.
[29] Ibid
[30] B. Aisha Lemu, Woman in Islam, Leicester, Cromwell Press Ltd, 1976, pp.22-23.
[31] Ibid, p.19.
[32] Proverbs 31: 10-27. The Zimbabwe Assemblies of God (ZAOGA) is actively pursuing the mandate in the said scriptures in its women’s organisations.
[33] http:// www.webstar.co.uk.
[34] Qur’an, Sura 35: 28.
[35] http:// www.webstar.co.uk.
[36] Herbert L. Bodman, “ Introduction”, in Bodman H..L. and Tohidi N. (ed.s), Women in Muslim Societies: Diversity Within Unity, p. 5.
[37] Ibid, p.4.
[38] Qur’an 16: 94 and I Corinthians 14: 34-35.
[39] http:// www.thecircleawt.org.
[40] Musa Wenkosi Dube, “Little Girl, Get Up”, in Njoroge N.J. and Dube M.W., Talitha cum!Theologies of African W omen, Pietermaritzburg, Cluster Publications, 2001
p.35.
[41] Winnie Wanzala, “Towards an Epistemological and Methodological Frame of Development” in McFadden P. (ed), Southern Africa in Transition: A Gendered Perspective, Harare, Sapes Trust, 1998, p.1.


[42] http:// www.afrikaworld.net/afrel.
[43] Ibid
[44] http:// www.thecircleawt.org. Gendered males in the opinion of the circle are women who have a type of authority over men which can be equated to that which white women had over African men in a colonial set up. These women are also gendered males because they are not representative of the broader group of women in their society. In fact these gendered males are also the oppressors and exploiters of other women.
[45] In the book of Genesis Abraham was concerned about getting a son who would inherit his wealth. Jacob extended his blessings to his twelve sons and no mention is made of his daughters.
[46] Mary Nyambura Muchiri, Women and Land: Culture, Religion And Realizing Women’s Rights, p.4.
[47] Mark 5 and Musa Wenkosi Dube, “Little Girl, Get Up”, p.3-8.